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Western Frontiers and Client Kingdoms

Mithradates II faced challenges on the western frontiers, quelling rebellions in Iraq and Charax. He appointed Tigranes as the vassal king of Armenia and captured Seleucid king Demetrius III. In the east, Mithradates successfully redirected Saka raiders into India. The nearby Surens, or Indo-Parthians, became a client kingdom in southeastern Iran and Pakistan, while others established friendly states in India. The Parthian empire, characterized by loose organization, employed native satellite rulers near the borders rather than direct governance Mithradates II and the Flourishing Parthian Empire.

Military Reforms and New Army

Not forgetting the betrayal by Greek mercenaries, Mithradates II enhanced the army to reduce dependence on their services. While cavalry remained the primary force, Mithradates mandated landowners to provide peasants for infantry uni

Challenge from the Scythians

Following Antiochus VII’s defeat, the Parthians faced new challenges from Scythian raids into Iran. In response, Phraates, utilizing Greek captives from Antiochus’s defeat, confronted the Scythians. However, when the battle took a turn for the worse, the Greek captives turned on Phraates, aiding the nomads in defeating the Parthian army. This incident left a lasting impact on Parthian military strategy The Kingdom of the Maccabees.

Successors and Nomadic Threats

Artabanus II, Phraates’s uncle and successor, similarly fell victim to nomadic threats. The subsequent king, Mithradates II, emerged as the most significant ruler in Parthian history. Drawing a parallel between Mithradates II and Darius I, both notable for enriching their respective empires, Mithradates II played a crucial role in transforming the region. In contrast to the challenging arid landscape, the Part

Alexander, Seleucus, and Antiochus I sought to establish their rule in foreign lands by bringing in a significant number of Greeks, estimated at around 100,000 families. However, their ambition for complete cultural fusion fell short, contributing to the eventual disintegration of the kingdom. Nevertheless, western civilization found a lasting presence in Syria, particularly in the cities of Antioch, Laodicea, and Apamea, which became the pride and nerve center of the Seleucid kingdom.

Antioch rapidly expanded Fragmentation and the Spread of Hellenism, boasting a population between 90,000 and 150,000 inhabitants, making it the second-largest city globally, surpassed only by Alexandria in Egypt. Seleucia on the Tigris River replaced Babylon as the largest city in Iraq and served as the empire’s second capital, influencing commerce and dominating the economy of a vast region due to its strategic geographic location

The battle of Ipsus, in line with the prophecy in Daniel 8, saw Greece conquering Persia only to fragment into four secondary kingdoms. Another generation of conflict was needed to reduce the number to three.

Greece and Macedonia

After Cassander’s death, Demetrius briefly seized Greece and Macedonia, only to be ousted by Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. Demetrius surrendered to Seleucus and spent his last days imprisoned. Ptolemy, remarkably, died of natural causes in 283 Wars Among the Diadochi. Lysimachus and Seleucus later turned against each other, with Lysimachus killed in single combat at Corupedium. As Seleucus crossed to Europe for Macedonia, he was assassinated upon disembarking. Antigonus II, Demetrius’s son, later took Macedonia, bringing a semblance of peace, as all of Alexander’s successors were deceased.

Amid the discord, the diffusion of Greek culture, known as Hellenism, emerged as a success stor

Two years after Antipater’s death, chaos returned. Cassander asserted control over Macedonia and Greece, while Antigonus ousted Eumenes from the east. Antigonus then aimed for Babylon, expelled Seleucus, and pursued Eumenes to Iran, where betrayal led to Eumenes’s demise in 316.

Antigonus, eyeing sole rule, enjoyed initial success. Propaganda and his son Demetrius captured Greece from Cassander, and he consolidated power in the Aegean. Yet, open ambition united rivals against him. In 312, Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Cultural Dynamics in the Wake of Alexander’s Empire, while Seleucus reclaimed Babylon and initiated a decade-long eastern campaign.

Antigonus crowned

A truce in 311 was short-lived. By then, Alexander’s family met violent ends. Antigonus crowned himself king in 306, prompting Ptolemy and Seleucus to follow suit. Demetrius, despite naval triumphs, failed at bes

Verb Forms A Flexible Approach

Performance of the Grammar

The grammar performs well in recognizing complex tense forms with auxiliaries and full-content verbs. However, to build a comprehensive grammar for compound verb forms, it is crucial to learn from rare syntagmatic patterns, enriching the paradigmatic knowledge.

Handling Discontinuity

Discontinuous compound verb forms with adverbial and nominal inserts pose a challenge for the current grammar. To address this, rules identifying shorter segments within the verb complex (auxiliary and main verb chunks) can be applied. This approach, moving from syntagmatic realization to paradigmatic knowledge, is consistent with methodologies in other languages. Exploring discontinuity in relation to main verb forms, such as passive participles separated by adverbials, is essential for refinement Evaluating the Application.

Leveraging Treebank Construction

Evaluating the Application of Regular Grammars for Bulgarian Verb Forms

Some Preliminary Evaluation of the Grammar Application

The application of Recognizer 2 enables correct delimitation and markup of the majority of the longest compound verb form patterns. Experiments with a newspaper corpus reveal that chunks identified by Recognizer 1 are often adjacent within the longest compound verb form patterns in communicatively unmarked written prose. The paradigmatic representation of word order within the verb complex, considering the “communicative organization of Bulgarian sentences” as outlined in Avgustinova 1997 Building a Two-Level Grammar, supports this conclusion.

Here are numerical insights into the application of the regular grammars

In a 4292-word text, Recognizer 1 identifies 536 occurrences of main verbs with or without small words, 164 occurrences of auxiliary verbs with or without sma

Cascade for Recognizing Bulgarian Verb Forms

In the MV rule explained below, the element is the context node. XPath expressions are employed to search the local tree structure for PCDATA strings of the ph element (representing the running word string) and the ta element (indicating the correct morphosyntactic tag) to match input words to the regular expression. In the rule, input words are ordered pairs of ph content and ta content, with irrelevant content marked by the # symbol, like <“da”,”#”> or <“#”,”Pp@d@@@t”>. The grammar specifies the elements in the XML document to which it is applied (e.g., paragraph, head, and highlighted elements).

Currently, the regular grammar cascade for recognizing compound verb forms consists of two levels. Recognizer 1 includes rules operating on the first level, producing:

Verb forms with a single main verb or a main verb accompanied by small words Read more